MAPPING ICTS IN SOMALIA: POLICIES, PLAYERS, AND PRACTICES   several participants said they were only given a summary of the law during the consultations. The fact that the media reform law is shrouded in secrecy may be evidence that Puntland authorities are likely to promulgate laws that are intended to silence dissent. three of which are Hormuud Telecom, Telecom Olympic, and Nation Link. Hormuud, the largest ICT company in Somalia, owns the largest ICT providers in Puntland and Somaliland. NationLink, the second largest company, also has similar operations in all three regions. Somaliland ICT companies play a major role in shaping telecom policies. According to Abdi Nur Hussien, a former advisor to the World Bank on Somalia, ICT policy is controlled by the telecom and hawala companies, which have the necessary resources and the knowledge to influence these policies (personal communication, March 2013). In the last decade, the Somali government lacked the institutional capacity to develop ICT policies and procedures, and other priorities always stood in the way. A common theme from our interviews was that because of these two factors, the telecommunications sector has an oversized influence on how policy is crafted both at the national and regional levels. Telecom giants combine their lobbying efforts with attempts to influence politicians by improving service delivery in policymakers’ hometowns and villages. Somaliland is an internationally recognized autonomous region of Somalia. It is the most stable of the three regions of Somalia, and its government has held several successful elections. While its telecom and other ICT sectors are booming, the media remains constrained. Private radio stations are not permitted, on the pretense that they could undermine stability and precipitate disorder (Stremlau, 2012). Although there are more than ten newspapers in Somaliland, there is only one radio station – Radio Hargeisa – which is owned and run by the government (Stremlau, 2012). Given the high rate of illiteracy, print media has relatively low penetration among the wider society, making it easier for print media outlets to avoid government restrictions. The government contends that privately owned radio stations are one of the factors of instability in SouthCentral Somalia—an assertion widely seen as an attempt to keep the airwaves exclusive to pro-government broadcasts. Somaliland media policy is guided by the Republic of Somaliland Press Law (2004). Freedom of expression and protection of journalists are also enshrined in Article 32 of Somaliland’s Constitution (“Constitution,” 2000). In 2007, the Somaliland Press and Publications Bill was introduced in parliament to replace the 2004 Press Law. The bill is currently working its way through relevant committees, as media activists have expressed concern about the legislation. Journalists and media owners have advocated for an independent regulatory body, but the government has yet to respond to that call. 3) A strong private telecommunications sector that benefits from a lack of regulation Telecom giants across Somalia have enormous resources, and as a result, hold huge sway among policymakers. Dahir Adaani, an ICT specialist at MIPT, described them as “unstoppable” (personal communication, March 2013). They are, primarily, national companies with market penetration in all three regions of Somalia – the largest Page 8 It is in the interest of the telecom sector to keep the regulatory environment lax, and the sector uses its resources to support this goal. Somalia’s powerful private sector exploits the inherent weakness in the SFG to continue making huge profits while avoiding paying taxes and fees. This dilemma has frustrated many governments over the last decade. According to one senior advisor to the current MIPT, there appears to be no end in sight: For nearly two decades, the Somali private sector has been taking advantage of our institutional weaknesses and lack of capacity to develop and execute ICT policies…The private sector has, in some ways, contributed to the limitations of the government by perpetually stymieing progress on national ICT policies. It’s time for our government to take the matter seriously. (Personal communication, March 2013) One way the telecom sector “stymies” progress on ICT policy, and therefore maintains the status quo, is by maintaining, to the extent possible, a positive image both in the eyes of government and the public. For the government, this takes the form of a mutually supportive co-dependency; for the public this means creating ICTs that fulfill some of the roles of the government.